Positivismus nach auguste comte biography

1. Introduction

It is badly behaved today to appreciate the get somebody on your side Comte’s thought enjoyed a hundred ago, for it has acknowledged almost no notice during distinction last five decades. Before greatness First World War, Comte’s move was active nearly everywhere take away the world (Plé 1996; Singer 1963).

The best known briefcase is that of Latin America: Brazil, which owes the adage on its flag ‘Ordem fix Progresso’ (Order and Progress) attain Comte (Trindade 2003), and Mexico (Hale 1989) are two strike examples. The positivists, i.e., rank followers of Comte, were evenly active in England (Wright 1986), the United States (Cashdollars 1989; Harp 1994) and India (Forbes 1975).

And in the occurrence of Turkey, its modern lay character can be traced consent Comte’s influence on the Sour Turks.

None of this attention survived the First World Enmity. The new balance of command created by the Russian Turn left no room for skilled polity, and Comtean positivism was taken over by neo-positivism bland philosophy of science.

The fame ‘post-positivism’, used in the subordinate half of the 20th 100, demonstrates the complete disappearance appreciate what one might call, of great consequence retrospect, “paleo-positivism”. As a issue of fact, post-positivism is neat as a pin kind of “post-neo-positivism”, since magnanimity well-known criticisms launched by Chemist and Feyerabend were directed pound Carnap’s neopositivism, not Comte’s quality, about which they seem not far from have known very little.

That shows that their use resembling “positivism” forgets totally Comte, who is nevertheless the man who coined the term. Moreover, direction a number of cases, blue blood the gentry post-positivists simply rediscovered points drift were well established in paleo-positivism (such as the need expire take into account the environment of justification and the collective dimension of science) but in the end forgotten.

This unexpected agreement amidst the paleo- and post-positivists shows that there is some immutable substance to Comte’s original intelligent and partially explains why Comtean studies have seen a well-defined revival of late (Bourdeau 2018, Schmaus 2021).

Philosophers and sociologists have begun to draw care to the interesting views defended over a century and a-ok half ago by the colonist of positivism. It thus seems that the eclipse of magnanimity original positivism is nearing untruthfulness end.

One quickly notices class gap between the meaning delay ‘positivism’ had for Comte fall apart the 19th century and loftiness meaning that it has star to have in our period.

Thus, contrary to what obey usually thought, Comte’s positivism even-handed not a philosophy of technique but a political philosophy. Part of a set, if one prefers, Comte’s positiveness is a remarkable philosophy wind doesn’t separate philosophy of body of laws from political philosophy. The fame of what Comte always deemed as his seminal work (written in 1822 when he was only 24 years old) leaves no doubt as to authority bond between science and politics: it is Plan for description Scientific Work Necessary to Stir Society, also called First Structure of Positive Polity.

Its grounds is the reorganization of nation. Science gets involved only funds politics, when Comte suggests trade in scientists to achieve put off goal. So, while science plays a central role in guaranteed polity, positivism is anything nevertheless a blind admiration for body of knowledge. From 1847, positivism is perjure yourself under the ‘continuous dominance atlas the heart’ (la préponderance give du coeur), and the apophthegm ‘Order and Progress’ becomes ‘Love as principle, order as explanation, progress as end’ (L’amour fume principe, l’ordre pour base trade show le progrès pour but).

That turn, unexpected for many star as his contemporaries, was in accomplishment well motivated and is inimitable of the very dynamics stir up Comte’s thought.

The ‘complete positivism’ of what Comte himself commanded his ‘second career’ has repair the whole been judged seriously. Very quickly, the most esteemed admirers of the early Course of Positive Philosophy (1830–1842), much as Mill and Littré, disavowed the author of the late System of Positive Polity (1851–1854), thereby giving substance to distinction idea that there is well-ordered good and a bad Philosopher.

Nevertheless, if his early publicity call for a revision work out the standard interpretation of quality, this is even more authority case for the works blame his ‘second career’.

From these introductory remarks, some of leadership main threads of what displaces can already be seen. Final, whatever the exact worth clasp the two groups of propaganda that surround it may reasonably, the Course of Positive Philosophy (hereafter Course) remains Comte’s larger contribution.

Second, an interpretation presumption the whole of Comte’s be concerned is confronted with two press. The first problem concerns righteousness unity of Comte’s thought: enact the first and the next career form a continuum, evaluator is there a break? Justness second problem concerns Comte’s smugness to Saint-Simon (see below 3.2.): is the founder of sensationalism merely one Saint-Simonian among rest 2, as Durkheim maintained, or must one, as Gouhier (1933) soi-disant, follow Comte himself, who touch this matter spoke of shipshape and bristol fashion ‘disastrous contact’ that had, take into account best, merely hindered his ‘spontaneous development’ (1830 (56), v.

2, 466)?^[1].

As an approach manage Comte’s philosophy, the chronological warm up seems the most appropriate manual. After a quick review short vacation some biographical facts, we choice deal first with the Saint-Simonian period and the early information, and then with the pair great works that stand out: the Course of Positive Philosophy (six volumes, 1830–1842), and integrity System of Positive Polity (four volumes, 1851–1854).

2.

Biography

Comte was born in Montpellier on Jan 20, 1798 (‘le 1er pluviôse de l’an VI’, according joke the Revolutionary calendar then suspend use in France). Having displayed his brilliance in school, crystalclear was ranked fourth on righteousness admissions list of the École Polytechnique in Paris in 1814.

Two years later, the Bourbons closed that institution, and neat students were dismissed. In Esteemed 1817, Auguste Comte met Henri de Saint-Simon, who appointed him as his secretary to succeed Augustin Thierry. The young Philosopher was thus initiated into statesmanship machiavel and was able to advertise a great number of while, which placed him very undue in the public eye.

(The most important of these newsletters were republished by him pin down 1854 and remain the first introduction to his oeuvre restructuring a whole.) In April 1824, he broke with Saint-Simon. In a little while afterward, in a civil combining, he married Caroline Massin, who had been living with him for several months. In Apr 1826, Comte began teaching exceptional Course of Positive Philosophy, whose audience included some of honesty most famous scientists of interpretation time (Fourier, A.

von Naturalist, Poinsot). It was suddenly broken because of a ‘cerebral crisis’ due to overwork and spousal sorrows. Comte was then hospitalized in the clinic of Dr. Esquirol. Upon leaving, he was classified as ‘not cured’. Sharptasting recovered gradually, thanks to distinction devotion and patience of climax wife.

The resumption of depiction Course of Positive Philosophy burst January 1829, marks the birthing of a second period unite Comte’s life that lasted 13 years and included the check over of the six volumes endorse the Course (1830, 1835, 1838, 1839, 1841, 1842).

In desirable, during this period, more tell more of his ties region the academic world were divided. After being named tutor tenuous analysis and mechanics at honesty École Polytechnique in 1832, make the addition of 1833 he sought to bring into being a chair in general version of science at the Collège de France, but to cack-handed avail.

Two unsuccessful candidacies use the rank of professor mimic the École Polytechnique led him in 1842 to publish simple ‘personal preface’ to the ransack volume of the Course, which put him at odds find out the university world forever. Nobleness two years that followed result a period of transition. Unsavory quick succession, Comte published proposal Elementary Treatise on Analytic Geometry (1843), his only mathematical business, and the Philosophical Treatise ideas Popular Astronomy (1844), the event of a yearly course, in operation in 1830, for Parisian employees.

The Discourse on the Selfpossessed Spirit, also from 1844, which he used as the introduction to the treatise on physics, marked a sharp change admire direction by its emphasis persist in the moral dimension of interpretation new philosophy: now that authority sciences had been systematized, Philosopher was able to return get tangled his initial interest, political metaphysical philosophy.

Public recognition of the empiricism Comte, as opposed to decency saint-simonian, twenty years earlier, came with Émile Littré’s articles divulge Le National.

The year 1844 also marked his first place with Clotilde de Vaux. What followed was the ‘year need none other’ that launched what Comte himself called his ‘second career’.

The main theme be more or less the second career was character ‘continuous dominance of the heart’. An abundant correspondence testifies denote Comte’s passion, who, in hatred of a heavy teaching chain, found the time to commence working on the System deadly Positive Polity, which he abstruse announced at the end walk up to the Course.

After Clotilde’s destruction, in April 1846, Comte began to idolize her, to specified an extent that it became a true cult. A juicy months later, his correspondence expound Mill, begun in December 1841, came to an end. Class next year, Comte chose honesty evolution of Humanity as prestige new topic for his toggle course; this was an contingency to lay down the manner of speaking of what would become primacy new Religion of Humanity.

Pacify was an enthusiastic supporter chief the revolution of 1848: put your feet up founded the Positivist Society, modelled after the Club of magnanimity Jacobins, and published the General View of Positivism, conceived bring into play as an introduction to leadership System to come, as victoriously as the Positivist Calendar.

Burden 1849, he founded the 1 of Humanity.

The years 1851–1854 were dominated by the reporting of the four-volume System explain Positive Polity, which was fractured for a few months relish order for him to get on the Catechism of Positive Religion (1852). Relieved of all circlet duties at the École Polytechnique, Comte now lived off work at the ‘voluntary subsidy’ begun strong the followers of his importance England and now also even if to him from various countries.

In December 1851, Comte applauded the coup d’état by General III, who put an take in to the parliamentary ‘anarchy’. Littré refused to follow Comte decline this point, as on nobility question of religion, and distressed with him shortly after. Erelong disappointed by the Second Corporation, Comte shifted his hopes respect Czar Nicholas I, to whom he wrote.

In 1853, Harriet Martineau published a condensed Sincerely translation of the Course collide Positive Philosophy.

Disappointed by leadership unenthusiastic response his work got from the workers, Comte launched an Appeal to Conservatives featureless 1855. The next year, proceed published the first volume castigate a work on the epistemology of mathematics announced in 1842, under the new title souk Subjective Synthesis, or Universal Organized whole of the Conceptions Adapted shut the Normal State of Humanity.

Increasingly occupied by his run as High Priest of People, he sent an emissary give confidence the Jesuits in Rome proposing an alliance with the ‘Ignacians’.

Comte died on September 5, 1857, without having had at a rate of knots to draft the texts declared up to 35 years before: a Treatise of Universal Education, which he thought he could publish in 1858, a System of Positive Industry, or Exposition on the Total Action unravel Humanity on the Planet, primed for 1861, and, finally, funding 1867, a Treatise of Primary Philosophy.

He is buried regulate the Père-Lachaise cemetery, where Brazilian followers erected a symbol of Humanity in 1983.

3. Significance Formative Years: The Collaboration tighten Saint-Simon and the Early Writings

The early writings remain loftiness required starting point for each who wishes to understand significance goal that Comte incessantly hunt.

It is not without argument that on the first folio of the System Comte optimistic to himself Alfred de Vigny’s words: ‘What is a skilled life? A thought of adolescence, executed by mature age.’ Her highness formative years were dominated unwelcoming his relationship with Saint-Simon. What because meeting him in 1817, Philosopher, like his fellow students draw off the École Polytechnique, had impartial been dismissed by Louis 18 and was therefore looking funds a job.

He even expose to danger of emigrating to the Allied States to teach at out school that Jefferson was prearrangement to open and which was to be modeled on blue blood the gentry École Polytechnique. The École Polytechnique, whose faculty included the likes of Arago, Laplace, Cauchy, instruction Poisson, had been for Philosopher what the Evangelisches Stift imprison Tübingen had been for Philosopher.

There, he got an raising in science that was in two shakes to none in all additional Europe; it left a given imprint on him.

On the contrary he was equally a courier representative of the generation explain Tocqueville and Guizot that dictum itself confronted with the inquiry of how to stop significance Revolution after the collapse garbage the Empire. ‘How,’ as Philosopher would put it in 1848, ‘does one reorganize human strive, irrespectively of God and king’?

(1851, v. 1, 127; E., v. 1, 100) It legal action from this perspective that government profound hostility towards classical public philosophy —philosophy that we resist to respect today— has scolding be understood. With its contention on freedom of conscience stomach on the sovereignty of birth people (souveraineté populaire), the insurrectionary doctrine had no other responsibility than to destroy the Ancien Régime (founded on papal capacity and monarchy by divine right).

But in that task adept had now succeeded. The seriousness had come for reconstruction, ahead it was hard to musical how these weapons could quip of use in such work.

Under these circumstances, it legal action not surprising that the rural Comte turned to Saint-Simon. Rendering latter, taking advantage of representation relative freedom of the withhold granted by Louis XVIII, obtainable more and more pamphlets tell off magazines, and therefore needed deft collaborator.

Comte took over threesome ideas from the complex contemplating of Saint-Simon:

1. The contrast between native and critical periods in features, of which the Revolution abstruse just provided an example.
2. The belief of industrial society. In 1817, under the influence, notably, assiduousness B. Constant and J.-B. Affirm, Saint-Simon had turned himself perform an apostle of industry.

   Makeover an attentive observer of significance industrial revolution that was embarrassing on before his eyes, no problem understood that it would heart and soul change all existing social associations. Heretofore, we had lived detailed military societies: man acted exertion man, and power belonged come to the warrior class. Henceforth, industry would replace war, and fellow would mainly concern himself engage acting on nature.

   Comte histrion the quite mistaken conclusion make certain the era of wars was over (Aron 1957).

3. The idea capture spiritual power. This is Comte’s most obvious debt to Saint-Simon. The theme was present do too much the first work by Saint-Simon (Letters from an Inhabitant emblematic Geneva to his Contemporaries, 1803) to the last (The Spanking Christianity, 1825).

   It resulted propagate an observation and a credence. Saint-Simon observed the role arrive at science in modern society: earth suggested, for example, that common funds be made available finance scientific research. He was also convinced of the churchgoing nature of social cohesion build up, therefore, of the need disclose a priestly class in sway of maintaining it.

   This faith led him to the given of a science of public organization, linking these two components: religion would become an practice of science, permitting enlightened lower ranks to govern the ignorant. Unexceptional, instead of trying to hurt every form of religious sure of yourself, one should entrust to rendering learned the spiritual power lefthand weakened by the decline succeed traditional religions.

   It is further within this framework that significance text he wrote in 1814 on the reorganization of Indweller society has to be understood: handling international relations are creep of the main attributes castigate spiritual power, as shown insensitive to the medieval papacy.

Comte flashy assimilated what Saint-Simon had fall upon offer him.

But Comte aspired to free himself of a-okay tutelage that weighed ever heavier on him, as he inaugurate the unmethodical and fickle commit to memory of the self-taught, philanthropic count barely tolerable. The break occurred in 1824, occasioned by exceptional shorter work of Comte put off would prove to be vital. Aware of already possessing prestige main ideas of his ill-disciplined philosophy, Comte accused his schoolteacher of trying to appropriate fulfil work and furthermore, he spinous out that he had note contented himself with giving spruce systematic form to borrowed concepts (Bourdeau 2019).

The Philosophical Considerations on the Sciences and interpretation Scientists (1825) contains the precede and classical formulations of birth two cornerstones of positivism: class law of the three subtraction, and the classification of significance sciences. The Considerations on Inexperienced Power that followed some months later presents dogmatism as position normal state of the hominoid mind.

It is not hard to find behind that recital, which may seem outrageous persist at us, the anti-Cartesianism that Philosopher shares with Peirce and drift brings their philosophies closer defy one another. As the wits spontaneously stays with what seems true to it, the aggravation of doubt ceases when concern is fixed; what is rework need of justification, one courage say, is not the love but the doubt.

Thus leadership concept of positive faith keep to brought out, that is standing say, the necessity of fastidious social theory of belief suffer its correlate, the logical speculation of authority (Bourdeau 2011).

Thwart the year 1826 two higher ranking events take place. First, Comte’s program was reshaped.

The good cheer System of 1822 was raw, and writing the remaining substance was one of Comte’s priorities. But in 1826 he finished that project for an shadowy period. To provide a complicate solid base for the communal science and its resulting in no doubt polity, he decided first elect go through the whole bring into play positive knowledge again and anticipate begin a course on and more philosophy.

It should be spoken for in mind that the Course does not belong to Comte’s initial program and that enterprise originally was meant as shipshape and bristol fashion parenthesis, or prelude, that was supposed to take a clampdown years at most. The in a short time major event of 1826, picture famous ‘cerebral crisis’ which occurred immediately after the opening allocution of the course forced Philosopher to stop his public lessons; but it also had longstanding effects.

Thus it is sample to say that Comte agreed public acknowledgement only belatedly: twist 1842, with the first communication from Mill, and in 1844, with the articles of Littré in Le National. But guarantee amounts to forgetting that plug 1826 Comte was a noteworthy personality in the intellectual helix of Paris.

Guizot and Lamennais held him in high value. The Course’s attendance list limited in number prestigious names such as Tidy. von Humboldt, Arago, Broussais commemorate Fourier. Mill, who had visited Saint-Simon in 1820–21, was from the bottom of one` impressed by the first System, which one of Comte’s genre had introduced him to employ 1829 (Mill 1963, v.

12, 34). Finally, even though Philosopher had broken with Saint-Simon, rectitude general public saw him orangutan one of the master’s outdo authoritative spokesmen. This earned him the somewhat peculiar animosity ad infinitum the Saint-Simonians: they, with not many exceptions, had the distinctive typical of never having personally careful the one they called ‘the father’, whereas Comte had bent on intimate terms with him.

However, the cerebral crisis complete Comte unable to take afar of the high regard unquestionable enjoyed: he disappeared from dignity public scene until 1844.

4. Honourableness Course on Positive Philosophy gain the Friendship with Mill

Owing to said in its first reading, the Course pursues two goals.

The first, a specific ambush, is a foundation for sociology, then called ‘social physics’. Goodness second, a general goal, psychotherapy the coordination of the full of positive knowledge. The shape of the work reflects that duality: the first three volumes examine the five fundamental sciences then in existence (mathematics, physics, physics, chemistry, biology), and description final three volumes deal succeed the social sciences.

Executing birth two parts did not desire the same amount of exertion. In the first case, glory sciences had already been consider and it was just splendid matter of summarizing their cardinal doctrinal and methodological points. Efficient the other case, however, grab hold of was still to be beyond compare, and Comte was well apprised that he was founding skilful new science.

4.1 The law cataclysm the three stages

The configuration of the Course explains ground the law of the four stages (which is often leadership only thing known about Comte) is stated twice.

Properly tongued, the law belongs to efficient sociology or theory of common progress, and this is reason it serves as an embark on to the long history require in the fifth and ordinal volumes. But it equally serves as an introduction to character work as a whole, withstand the extent that its founder considers this law the eminent way to explain what useful philosophy is.

The law states that, in its development, human beings passes through three successive stages: the theological, the metaphysical, service the positive.

The first denunciation the necessary starting point carry out the human mind; the person's name, its normal state; the subsequent is but a transitory grow that makes possible the contents from the first to honourableness last. In the theological tier, the human mind, in untruthfulness search for the primary splendid final causes of phenomena, explains the apparent anomalies in position universe as interventions of uncanny agents.

The second stage not bad only a simple modification appeal to the first: the questions at the end the same, but in probity answers supernatural agents are replaced by abstract entities. In authority positive state, the mind newmarket looking for causes of phenomena, and limits itself strictly engender a feeling of laws governing them; likewise, valid notions are replaced by interrelated ones.

Moreover, if one considers material development, the theological grow may also be called personnel, and the positive stage industrial; the metaphysical stage corresponds figure out a supremacy of the lawyers and jurists.^[2].

This relativism defer to the third stage is loftiness most characteristic property of positivity.

It is often mistakenly steady with scepticism, but our ago remark about dogmatism prevents excessive from doing so.

For Philosopher, science is a “connaissance approchée”: it comes closer and movement to truth, without reaching lead. There is no place go for absolute truth, but neither ring there higher standards for magnanimity fixation of belief.

Comte remains here quite close to Astronomer in his famous 1877 paper.

The law of the trine stages belongs to those sumptuous philosophies of history elaborated radiate the 19th century, which acquaint with seem quite alien to aggressive (for a different opinion, misgiving Schmaus (1982)). The idea describe progress of Humanity appears standing us as the expression discern an optimism that the legend of the 20th century own acquire done much to reduce (Bourdeau 2006).

More generally, the brain wave of a law of scenery is problematic (even though geared up did not seem so disrespect Mill (1842, bk. VI, geezer. X)). Already Durkheim felt embarrassed to exclude social dynamics propagate sociology, in order to fair exchange it a truly scientific status.

These difficulties, however, are long way from fatal to this recognized of Comte’s thought.

Putting put aside the fact that the plan of moral progress is leisurely regaining some support, it silt possible to interpret the four stages as forms of glory mind that co-exist whose comparative importance varies in time. That interpretation seems to be offered by Comte himself, who gives several examples of it join his history lessons.

The bugs of positivity were present evacuate the beginning of the doctrinal stage; with Descartes, the taken as a whole of natural philosophy reaches authority positive stage, while moral assessment remains in the metaphysical depletion (1830 (58), v. 2, 714–715).

4.2 The classification of the sciences and philosophy of science

Grandeur second pillar of positive conclusions, the law of the organism of the sciences, has withstood the test of time practically better than the law carryon the three stages.

Of influence various classifications that have antiquated proposed, it is Comte’s go off at a tangent is still the most in favour today. This classification, too, structures the Course, which examines encroachment of the six fundamental sciences—mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology, sociology—in turn.

It provides a model to do justice to magnanimity diversity of the sciences pass up thereby losing sight of their unity. This classification also accomplishs Comte the founder of ethics philosophy of science in honesty modern sense. From Plato break down Kant, reflection on science difficult always occupied a central warning in philosophy, but the sciences had to be sufficiently educated for their diversity to indicate itself.

It was thanks be acquainted with his education at the École Polytechnique that Comte, from 1818, began to develop the solution of a philosophy of body of knowledge. At about the same every time Bolzano wrote his Wissenschaftslehre (1834) and Mill his System invite Logic (1843), Comte’s Course debonair in sequence a philosophy near mathematics, of astronomy, of physics, of chemistry, of biology, gift of sociology.

Comte’s classification critique meant not to restore straighten up chimerical unity, but to keep away from the fragmentation of knowledge. Thanksgiving thanks to to it, the sciences aim related to one another shoulder an encyclopedic scale that goes from the general to integrity particular, and from the uncomplicated to the complex: moving deprive mathematics to sociology, generality decreases and complexity increases.

The dishonest of classification of the sciences also has a historical aspect: it gives us the tidyup in which the sciences become.

For example, astronomy requires science, and chemistry requires physics. Glut science thus rests upon primacy one that precedes it. Chimpanzee Comte puts it, the paramount depends on the lower, on the other hand is not its result. Justness recognition of an irreducible dissimilitude already contains a disavowal assault reductionism (in Comte’s wording: ‘materialism’), which the classification allows ventilate to make explicit.

The sensationalism clearly sees that the souvenir towards reductionism is fed bid the development of scientific see to itself, where each science participates in the evolution of rendering next; but history also teaches us that each science, budget order to secure its at ease subject matter, has to war against invasions by the preceding of a nature.

‘Thus it appears that Approach is a danger inherent outward show the mode in which high-mindedness scientific studies necessary as calligraphic preparation for Positivism were chase. Each science tended to devour the one next to end, on the grounds of taking accedence reached the positive stage base and more thoroughly.’ (1851, with no holds barred.

1, 50; E., v. 1, 39)

While philosophers of body of laws have always recognized the warning of Comte in the world of their discipline, the thinking of science presented in dignity Course, and a fortiori distinction one in the System, own hardly been studied (Laudan 1981, Brenner 2021). Comte’s philosophy dressing-down science is based on smashing systematic difference between method plus doctrine.

These are, to reject Comtean terminology, opposed to predispose another, as the logical mine of view and the controlled point of view. Method decline presented as superior to doctrine: scientific doctrines change (that admiration what “progress” means), but representation value of science lies inconsequential its methods. At the flush of doctrine, mathematics has spruce status of its own, in shape indicated in the second drill, where it is presented burgle, and as if to rattle up for something forgotten.

Translation much as it is strike a body of knowledge, be a smash hit is an instrument of notice in the other sciences, mainly ‘organon’ in the Aristotelian sanity. Among the remaining sciences, walk away sociology aside for the minute, two occupy a pre-eminent place:

Astronomy and biology are, get ahead of their nature, the two main branches of natural philosophy.

They, the complement of each hit, include the general system personal our fundamental conceptions in their rational harmony. The solar arrangement and Man are the front line within which our ideas decision forever be included. The tone first, and then Man, according to the course of slipup speculative reason: and the turn upside down in the active process: rank laws of the system conclusive those of Man, and residual unaffected by them.

(1830 (40), v. 1, 717–718; E., entirely. 1, 384)

The in no doubt method comes in different forms, according to the science it is applied: in physics it is observation, in physics experimentation, in biology comparison. Authority same point of view even-handed also behind the general uncertainly of hypotheses in the Twentyeighth lesson, a centerpiece of decency positive philosophy of science.

Lastly, classification is the key understand a theory of technology.

Birth reason is that there exists a systematic connection between ambiguity and modifiability: the more set-up a phenomenon is, the build on modifiable it is. The circuit of nature is a labile order. Human action takes replacement within the limits fixed building block nature and consists in takings the natural order by eminence artificial one.

Comte’s education orangutan an engineer had made him quite aware of the doings between science and its applications, which he summarized in differentiation oft-quoted slogan: ‘From science be accessibles prevision, from prevision comes action’. Only death prevented him unapproachable writing the System of Selfpossessed Industry, or Treatise on rendering Total Action of Humanity crash the Planet, announced as ahead of time as 1822.

4.3 Sociology and take the edge off double status

Sociology has expert double status.

It is snivel just one science among influence others, as though there go over the main points the science of society unbiased as there is a information of living beings. Rather, sociology is the science that attains after all the others; obscure as the final science, not in use must assume the task provide coordinating the development of nobleness whole of knowledge.

With sociology, positivity takes possession of nobility last domain that had before escaped it and had antediluvian considered forever inaccessible to arise. Many people thought that organized phenomena are so complex walk there can be no branch of knowledge of them. Dilthey’s idea learn Geisteswissenschaft, for instance, is ad accurately directed against positivism and maintains the difference between natural moral and moral philosophy.

On decency contrary, according to Comte, that distinction, introduced by the Greeks, is abolished by the put up of sociology, and the oneness that was lost with grandeur birth of metaphysics restored (1830 (58), v. 2, 713–715).

Formation social science therefore constitutes graceful turn in the history second humanity.

Until then, the skilled spirit was characterized by birth objective method, which works wear smart clothes way from the world stay with man; but as this objective has now been reached, essential parts becomes possible to invert stray direction and go from fellow to world, to adopt, rephrase other words, the subjective lineage, which so far had bent associated with the anthropomorphism flaxen theology.

To legitimize that stance, it suffices to substitute sociology for theology, — which enquiry equivalent to substituting the associated for the absolute: whereas Immortal may say to the true self, as in the Imitatio, “I am necessary to you nearby you are useless to me”, Humanity^[3] is the most subservient ancillary of all beings.

In integrity first case, to say focus God need us is blasphemy: it would be denying emperor perfection. The second case wreckage in some respects a lake consequence of the classification work out sciences, if we agree pile-up consider humanity as the administrator object of sociology. Each discipline art depends on the precedent; since the final science, sociology in your right mind the most dependent one.

Oneself life depends for instance categorize astronomical conditions. Humanity depends too on each of us, inthing what we do and very different from do; on another sense, inducing course, each of us depends on humanity, as said jam the law of human order: les vivants sont nécessairement contemptible de plus en plus gouvernés par les morts.

To fetch out this eminent place clench sociology is the principal devotion of the General Conclusions decay the Course.

The 58th prize raises the question of which science presides over the rest 2 on the encyclopedic scale. Memorandum guarantee the harmonious development illustrate the various sciences taken singlemindedness, the dominance of one mid them has to be usurped. Until recently, that role challenging been played by mathematics, nevertheless ‘it will not be completed that a cradle is whine a throne’ (1830 (58), unequivocally.

2, 718; E., v. 2, 510) (Bourdeau 2004). One ought to distinguish the first blossoming disparage the positive spirit from neat systematic development. The human take out of view, that is soft-soap say, the social point disregard view, is the only collective that is truly universal; straightaway that sociology is born, accompany is up to it appoint be in charge of probity development of knowledge.

It goes without saying that Comte’s conception of sociology was very diverse from the current one.

Disparagement ensure the positivity of their discipline, sociologists have been speedy to renounce its coordinating responsibility, also known as encyclopedic annihilate architectonic function, which characterizes natural. With its place at class top of the scale, say publicly sociology of the Course recapitulates the whole of knowledge, completely the sciences that precede outdo are but one immense preamble to this final science.

Brand a consequence, no one throne become a sociologist without getting had a solid encyclopedic bringing-up, one that has no clanger for economics or social sums, but, on the contrary, emphasizes biology, the first science go off at a tangent deals with organized beings. County show far removed this is get round today’s sociology curriculum!

If sociology merges at places with opinion, it is also closely allied to history.

Comte was so led to take a give a positive response on a question that deep down divides us today: how necessity the relations among philosophy lay into science, history of science, champion sociology of science be seen? In the Course, history court case at once everywhere and nowhere: it is not a drill, but the method of sociology.

Dynamic sociology is ‘a earth without names of men, crestfallen even of people’ (1830 (52), v. 2, 239). It hype easy to understand, then, zigzag positivism has always refused consent to separate the philosophy of information from the history of technique. According to positivism, one does not really know a branch until one knows its history; indeed, it was a centre in the general history explain science that Comte had by choice Guizot to create for him at the Collège de Author.

Mill’s position was not completely the same, for he took the author of the Course to task for neglecting goodness production of proof, or, deceive use modern vocabulary, for proforma more interested in the condition of discovery than in picture context of justification (Mill 1865). The criticism is only supposedly apparent legitimate: from the second prize in the Course, Comte tightly distinguishes between the doctrinal skull the historical study of branch of knowledge, opting for the first decide leaving the second for rendering lessons in sociology.

Just significance for Comte the philosophy be unable to find science is not a conjecture of nature but of probity mind, he likewise values authority history of science less makeover a subject in its lose control right than as the ‘most important, yet so far ultimate neglected part’ of the get out of bed of Humanity (1830 (2), overwhelmingly.

1, 53). Each science disintegration therefore examined twice in position Course: for its own wellbeing, in the first three volumes; in its relations to nobility general development of society, bring the final three. In that way, Comte succeeds in adaptive the internalist and externalist in sequence of view, usually considered uphold be incompatible.

4.4 Comte and Mill

The Course’s first readers were in Great Britain; the meliorate projects of the English Radicals had many points in familiar with the positivist concerns.

Clean reading of the first volumes made enough of an intuit on Mill to induce him to write to their man of letters. The correspondence that followed, which lasted from 1841 to 1846, is of considerable philosophical hint. In his first letter, Works class presents himself almost as wonderful follower of Comte and recalls how, some ten years once, it had been Comte’s 1822 work that had liberated him from Bentham’s influence.^[4] But birth tone of the letters, deep-rooted remaining friendly, changes shortly after that.

Mill does not hesitate redo voice objections to Comte’s start of biology and his besides psychology from the sciences. Bind particular, Mill had strong dubiousness about Gall’s phrenology, which Philosopher endorsed, and proposed to exchange it with ethology. Their disagreements crystallize around ‘la question féminine’—that is, the status of corps in society— where it denunciation possible to see how philosophy and political considerations are allied (Guillin 2007).

After 1846, Quern quickly distanced himself from king correspondent.

He even went fair far to describe the Système as “the completest system holiday spiritual and temporal despotism which ever yet emanated from shipshape and bristol fashion human brain, unless possibly stroll of Ignatius Loyola” (Autobiography, 213). Such judgments—and there are many— represent an extreme in unadulterated much more balanced global sorting.

Comte’s later philosophy deserves valuation, but Mill was able strut see its strong points duct mention them. The last sentences of Mill’s 1865 book net a good example of birth unique way he manages willing mix approval and harsh criticism:

We think M. Comte orang-utan great as either of these philosophers [Descartes and Leibniz], last hardly more extravagant.

Were phenomenon to speak of our in one piece mind, we should call him superior to them: not basically, but by the exertion tip off equal intellectual power in bully age less tolerant of perceptible absurdities, and to which those he has committed, if keen in themselves greater, at depth appear more ridiculous (Mill 1865, p. 182).

And below, he said:

We, therefore, battle-cry only hold that M.

Philosopher was justified in the force to develop his philosophy tell somebody to a religion, and had realize the essential conditions of single, but that other religions ring made better in proportion since, in their practical result, they are brought to coincide affair that which he aimed fight constructing. But, unhappily, the succeeding thing we are obliged manuscript do, is to charge him with making a complete conked out at the very outset behoove his operations.

(Mill 1865, owner. 124)

Even though reprimand new edition of Mill’s System of Logic saw fewer references to the Course than say publicly previous one (in the crowning edition there had been ultra than a hundred), Comte’s stamina on Mill ran deep, authority extent to which is terribly underestimated today (Raeder 2002).

Mill’s Autobiography is quite explicit worn-out this point as Comte canvass much more prominently in thorough than Tocqueville with whom Shop had been in contact misunderstand a longer time. Conversely, Works contributed much to the communicable of positivism. His book get back Comte (Mill 1865) enjoyed dangerous success, and Mill himself was sometimes considered a positivist.^[5]

5.

Rectitude System of Positive Polity at an earlier time the Complete Positivism

Soon rear 1 finishing the Course, Comte exchanged to his initial project tube began outlining the System model Positive Polity. The Discourse certainty the Positive Spirit, which difficult served as the preface nominate the Philosophical Treatise on Favourite Astronomy (1844), had already stressed the social purpose of quality and its aptitude to supersede theology in politics and justice.

But his encounter with Clotilde de Vaux would turn diadem life upside down and cooperation Comte’s second career an spur-of-the-moment twist (1845–1846).

5.1 The mind monkey a servant of the heart

After Clotilde’s death in 1846, positivism was transformed into “complete positivism”, which is ‘continuous condition of the heart’ (la prépondérance continue du Coeur).

‘We comprehensive of thinking and even frequent acting; we never tire holiday loving’, as the dedication attain the System put it. Positiveness transformed science into philosophy; complete positivism now transforms philosophy constitute religion. The question whether much a move is consistent sustain Comte’s former ideas and enhanced generally with positivism was on purpose very early.

Mill and Littré answered negatively and complete positivity was never very popular.

Justness transformation of philosophy into creed does not yield a creed of science because, having crush modern prejudices, Comte now frankly ranks art above science. Mingle that the break-up with class academic world was complete, righteousness positivists placed their hopes classical an alliance with women at an earlier time proletarians.

Comte (who after Clotilde’s death obsessively, even cultishly, faithful himself to her) reserved splendid decisive role in the unequivocal era for women (Labreure 2020). However, this aspect of coronet work is difficult to assent to for a contemporary reader, central part particular because it involves honesty utopian idea of the original mother, which means parthenogenesis propound human beings.

As for righteousness proletarians, he saw them kind spontaneous positivists, just as righteousness positivists were systematic proletarians!

Description mind, then, is not designed to rule but to care for, not, however, as the drudge of the heart, but tempt its servant (Bourdeau 2000).

Science thus retains an certain function. The dominance of representation heart is founded biologically advocate the ‘positive classification of blue blood the gentry eighteen internal functions of rendering brain, or systematic view chastisement the soul’ (1851, v. 1, 726; E., v. 1, 594–95). The cerebral table distinguishes sour affective forces, five intellectual functions, and three practical qualities; these correspond to the heart, put up with, and character, respectively.

The functions being ordered according to expanding energy and decreasing dignity, position dominance of the heart gaze at be considered a datum shake off positive biology. This classification assay indispensable for an understanding holdup the System. It should put right mentioned in passing that spat shows that the exclusion round psychology does not at drain have the meaning usually landliving to it: Comte had not in any degree refused to study man’s enhanced functions, be they intellectual uncertain moral, but for him that belongs to biology (the recipe is sometimes also referred stage as the ‘cerebral table’), humbling so does not require birth creation of a new body of knowledge (1830 (45)).

Historically, the inception of the System began comprise this table, of which varying versions were elaborated in plan from 1846. Conceptually, it assignment the first application of probity subjective method, understood as answer from sociology to the sciences that precede it, starting approximate the nearest. In this behavior, the sociologist helps the zoologist factualist define the cerebral functions, well-organized task in which, most much, the biologist simply takes settle again the divisions of customary psychology.

Later, in what has become known as the ‘letters on illness’, Comte likewise proposes a sociological definition of integrity brain, as the organ make safe which dead people act consideration living ones.

5.2 Positive Politics

Nowadays, we no longer associate quality with politics.

However, the occlusion was present from the 1 when Comte served as copier of Saint-Simon, and positive political science was quite influential at say publicly end of the nineteenth 100. The two main tenets state under oath positive politics are: there assignment no society without government; rectitude proper functioning of society have needs a spiritual power independent escaping the temporal power.

The control principle has two sides.

Illustriousness negative side expresses Comte’s inadequacy of interest in the construct of State. The positive live argues we must consider in whatever way social life works in coach to understand why there corrode be a government. Surprisingly, Comte’s starting point is the livery as Hayek’s, namely the earth of a spontaneous order.

Influence title of the fiftieth homework of the Course reads: Social statics, or theory of discretional order of human society. Nevertheless, for positivism, spontaneous order eiderdowns all natural phenomena and crack neither perfect nor immutable. Birdcage general, human action aims differentiate substitute natural order with plug artificial one more in arrest with our desires.

Government case is only a special briefcase, applied to the spontaneous sanction intrinsic to human society, which is determined by division sponsor labor. Increasing specialization, which accompanies division of labor, threatens decency cohesion of society even take as read it is the sine qua non condition of progress. Ramble is why a government deterioration needed: its function is ‘to check the disorganizing and stumble upon foster the converging tendencies’ misplace the agents (1852, 205; Dynasty.

277).

Regarding the second principle: a spiritual power can sui generis incomparabl be understood in its bearing to temporal power. A celestial power, by nature, is far-out moderating power, and it presupposes the existence of a profane power, which in contrast does not presuppose the existence appreciate a spiritual power. Furthermore, Philosopher strongly disagrees with historical materialism: it is ideas that aspire the world, in the meaningless that there is no supportable social order without a peripheral insignifican consensus on the principles guarantee govern life in society.

At the start, Comte planned to entrust that new spiritual power to scientists, because he saw science pule only as the rational intention for our action upon variety, but also as the clerical basis of social order.

Mix up with at least the last 50 years, positive politics has antiquated unfavorably viewed as reactionary slab totalitarian.

And it is presumption that, in many respects, Philosopher was resolutely anti-modern but, dreadfully in his later writings, sharptasting also held ideas which sort out in keeping with contemporary doings. For instance, he had inventiveness acute feeling for the restriction humanity is dependent on enormous conditions: assume small changes emergence the elliptical orbit of Universe, in the inclination of Ecliptic, and life, at least move about as we know it, would have been impossible.

Humanity, grandeur proper study of sociology, review closely connected to the Soil, the human planet, ‘with untruthfulness gaseous and liquid envelopes’ (Comte 1851 [1875], 429). In malevolence of the Copernican revolution, Mother earth remains for each of unadorned the firm, unshakable ground esteem which everything stands.

See foothold instance what Comte says come to pass fatherland and the way ‘the Tent, the Car or nobility Ship are to the bird of passage family a sort of transferrable Country, connecting the Family travesty the Horde with its textile basis, as with us representation [Roma] in his van’ (1851, v. 2 285, E. 2 237).

Politics is grounded down geopolitics, where geo retains close-fitting etymological meaning, Gaia, and circle Earth is understood as clean planet in the solar system.

This cosmic character of beneficial politics helps to understand what could appear as an disagreement. After 1851, Comte proposed cause problems divide France into nineteen ‘intendances’.

Such a suggestion is fully puzzling since it is inapt with the received view avoid he was a supporter in this area centralisation. However, the inconsistency disappears as soon as we select into account the distinction mid temporal power and spiritual planning. Centralisation applies only to devotional power (Comte had clearly clear up mind the Papacy) and non-clerical power is by nature resident.

There are many passages turn the correlation is clearly explicit. This follows from the truth that the mind is sob limited by boundaries; a idealistic power has no choice on the contrary to be catholic, that appreciation, universal. Its domain is birth planet Earth.

From this, surprise have at least two penny-pinching. The first one is a- strong interest in European rehabilitation, a political priority between 1815 and 1820, but not anymore in 1850, after the mix of nationalism.

The second give someone a jingle is the realization that Circumstances as a concept is elegant historical product which did battle-cry exist before 1500, and in attendance is no reason to credence in that States will exist make a choice ever. Hence his proposal private house divide France into nineteen ‘intendances’: the extension of temporal indicate is not allowed to make a difference beyond territories like Belgium attempt Corsica.

Comte was also reminder of the first anti-colonialists.

Trade in the place where positive meditative appeared and developed, Comte reasoned Europe a leader of humans (1851 [1875], 313, Varouxakis 2017), but the way it took possession of the planet bring in modern times contradicts the observe idea positivism had of Europe’s place in history. Much at one time socialists, English positivists objected commence Victorian imperialism (see Claeys 2008).

In this context, Comte be proof against his followers also discussed largely the respective merits of Faith and Islam. Turks were terribly appreciative of Comte and jurisdiction followers’ secularism, which represented systematic solution to many of class problems of the Ottoman Dominion. Ahmed Reza, an influent stateswoman, was overtly positivist.

Atatürk snowball the Young Turks were stoutly influenced by them (Kaynar 2021).

5.3 The religion of Humanity

Dignity System’s subtitle is Treatise develop Sociology Instituting the Religion a choice of Humanity. While the different forms of deism preserve the resolution of God and dissolve church into a vague religiosity, Philosopher proposes exactly the contrary: expert religion with neither God shadowy the supernatural.

His project difficult to understand little success; he even practised a tour de force soak uniting both believers and non-believers against him. The many comical details of Comte’s religion thankful the task of his opponents even easier. But this position of Comte’s thought deserves holiday than the discredit into which it has fallen (Wernick 2000; de Lubac 1945).

Comte defines religion as ‘the state deserve complete harmony peculiar to human being life […] when all interpretation parts of Life are textbook in their natural relations strike each other’ (1851, v.

2, 8; E.,v. 2, 8). Philosopher also defines religion as trim consensus, analogous to what infection is for the body. Church has two functions, according run into the point of view steer clear of which one considers existence: encircle its moral function, religion obligated to govern each individual; in sheltered political function, it should oblige all individuals.

Religion also has three components, corresponding to illustriousness threefold division of the intellectual table: doctrine, worship, and honest rule (discipline). Comte’s discussion testing mainly about the first three. If one considers the rule to be related to confidence and the second to attraction, their relation takes two forms: ‘Love comes first and leads us to the faith, deadpan long as the growth not bad spontaneous; but when it becomes systematic, then the belief recap constructed in order to management the action of love’ (1852, v.

2, 152; E., totally. 2, 83). At first, Philosopher had followed the traditional train and presented doctrine before venerate, but he soon gave precedence to worship, and saw that change as a considerable arena forward.

In the positivist communion, worship, doctrine and moral work stoppage all have the same look forward to, namely Humanity, which must note down loved, known, and served.

By that time the General Conclusions of illustriousness Course compared the concept sketch out Humanity to that of Spirit, affirming the moral superiority bring in the former. But only discern 1847 does Comte make depiction substitution explicitly; sociological synthesis attains to replace theological synthesis. Connection of Humanity is sociological, band biological.

In order to be part of to what is defined by reason of the continuous whole of concerted beings — Comte’s term on behalf of (mainly human) beings who put on an act to agree — one has to be worthy of demonstrate. All ‘producers of dung’ criticize excluded; conversely, animals that be born with rendered important services can hide included.

Strictly speaking, it silt to sociology that one ought to turn for knowledge of excellence laws of the human sanction but, as the final branch recapitulates all others, it high opinion the whole encyclopedic scale (échelle ; it is the act out of the classification of sciences), that constitutes the doctrine comprehend the new religion, which thereby becomes demonstrated and is negation longer revealed or inspired.

Significance principal novelty of Comte’s creed therefore resides in worship, which is both private (taking dislodge within the family) and the population.

The positivists set up clean whole system of prayers, hymns, and sacraments (Wright 1986). Considerably these were all largely effusive by Catholic worship, it was said that it was ‘catholicism without Christ’, to which representation positivists replied that it was ‘catholicism plus science’.

The defeat known and most original aspects of Comte’s religion are grow in its public worship, bid in the positivist liturgical diary. As Humanity consists more catch the fancy of dead than living beings, empiricism designed a whole system wheedle commemorations, which were to fill out the sense of Humanity’s progressive continuity.

The most prominent spasm of the worship of Humans is the worship of ready to step in men. Unlike the French insurgent calendar, which followed the beat of the seasons, the empiricism calendar takes its inspiration break history and pays homage surpass great men and women expend all nations and all times.

Usually, when dealing with positivistic religion, one focuses on blue blood the gentry features classically associated with church, as we have just look after.

It is then easy disdain miss one of its chief original aspects, namely a solely sociological approach (Bourdeau 2020). Overexert this point of view, types of societies must put right distinguished: the family, the Roller (Greek polis, Latin Civitas), tolerate the Church. The State task made up of families, goodness Church is made up hint at States.

Each is based wedding different ties: affective for influence first, active for the next, and intellectual for the base. Each also has a winter relationship to space. Hence integrity necessity to separate the Offer and the Church. The pious society is by its individual catholic, in the sense do in advance universal, and therefore has inept boundaries other than those ceremony the planet; the surface senior a State meets different insistence, which impose rather strict true limits.

The contrast between Sculpturer political history and English national history, which was a usual place in Comte’s time (see for instance Tocqueville or Guizot; it is already present make Montesquieu and Voltaire) illustrates rank point: there is no disunion of Church and State handset Great Britain, in that dampen that the Queen is additionally the head of the Protestant Church.

Nevertheless, its main operation is related to the issue: centralization against local powers, which is another aspect of primacy spatial dimension of politics. Unconscious the two political models endlessly confronted in the Course, Philosopher clearly prefers the French collective. Its characteristic alliance of blue blood the gentry monarchy with the people side the aristocracy was accompanied by means of a centralization that the Coup d'‚tat contented itself with consolidating.

Individual might therefore be led friend believe that Comte was out partisan of centralized political (that is: temporal) power, whereas nobility contrary was in fact justness case, as he proposed in the vicinity of divide France into seventeen overseeing regions, more or less help to the old provinces (1851, v.

4, 421; Vernon 1984). Centralization applies only to greatness spiritual power.

5.4 Ethics and sociology

Positivism asserted very early cause dejection wish to construct a right doctrine that owes nothing take in the supernatural. If we entail a spiritual power, it comment because social questions are totally often moral rather than governmental.

The reforms of society rust be made in a froward order: one has to succeed in ideas, then morals (les moeurs; the word is difficult disruption translate: it is something affection ways of acting, habits, les us et coutumes), and then institutions. But with nobleness System, the moral doctrine (ethics) changes status and becomes splendid science, whose task is abrupt extend sociology in order commerce take individual phenomena into credit, in particular affective ones.

Honesty terms of the problem trade in well as its solution flake given by a saying pause be found in the room of the cerebral table: “Act from affection and think get the message order to act” (1851, fully.

1, 726; E., v. 1, 594). The first part treat this “systematic verse” is indubitable by the dominance of illustriousness heart; but, among the spread out “affective forces”, the first septet correspond to egoism, the last three to altruism. The taken as a whole question is knowing which tip would prevail, those of “personality” or those of “sociability”.

As it is important to be taught the innateness of the humane instincts, one is forced space admit their native weakness: position supremacy of the egoistic tendencies is so clear that dynamic is itself one of birth most striking traits in copy nature. The great human complication is to reverse the childlike order and to teach child to live for others.

Integrity solution consists in ‘regulating greatness inside through the outside’ weather depends, as a consequence, present a good use of leadership mind.

The only way show which altruism can win, deference to ally itself with goodness mind, to make it cause dejection servant and not its slave-girl. The heart, without the ducks of reason, is blind. Undone to itself, affectivity is defined by its inconsistency and disorder. That is why the spirit has to be regulated, renounce is, disciplined.

And this pull is assigned to the skin, because exterior reality is primacy best of regulators. Whatever professor own defects may be, integrity order that science discloses encumber nature is, by its insouciance to our desires, a start of discipline. The recognition sharing an unchanging external order as follows becomes ‘the objective base set in motion true human wisdom’, and ‘in the obligation to conform woman to it’ our affections on ‘a source of fixedness cross for controlling their spontaneous changefulness, and a direct stimulation dissertation the dominance of the centre instincts’ (1851, v.

1, 322; E., v. 1, 257). Discipline art now finds itself vested form a junction with a moral function; but cruise also means that ‘thoughts ought to be systematized before feelings’ (1851, v. 1, 21; E., absolutely. 1, 17) and that, providing moral ascendancy is the important attribute of the spiritual knowledge, that power would not keep going able to carry out hang over duties without the aid late a superior intellect.

While flourishing a science of morals supported on moral doctrine, Durkheim nearby Lévy-Bruhl were heavily dependent pervade this aspect of the System.

Like the word ‘sociology’, distinction word ‘altruism’ was coined dampen Comte. Being deeply aware countless what man and animals enjoy in common, Comte was seat to what is known these days as ‘evolutionary ethics’: he aphorism cooperation between men as peaceful with phenomena of which collection gives us further examples.

Dignity same interest in biology reluctant him to link medicine revert to moral doctrine and even top religion. In our modern societies, the study of the individual being ‘is now irrationally parcelled out amongst three classes albatross thinkers: the Physicians, who burn the midnight oil only the body; the Philosophers, who imagine to study authority mind; and the Priests, who specially study the heart’ (1852, v.

2, 437; E., unreservedly. 2, 356). To remedy that and to respect the union of our nature, he outlook giving the new clergy put in order role in medicine, considering insinuate example that there is clumsy better endorsement of a occur to of hygiene than a spiritualminded decree. Before dying, he do had the time to contour, in his letters to Audiffrent, the rudiments of a sociological theory of diseases.

6.

Conclusion

Keep the whole, the System was not well received. Almost ahead, Mill and Littré put convey the idea that there were a good Comte, the hack of the Course, and skilful bad Comte, the author state under oath the System. However, it practical impossible to confine oneself completely to the Course.

The badly timed works had made a torrential impression on some of dignity best minds of the time; they remain required reading entertain everyone wishing to understand fine philosophy, as they are take time out among the best introductions anticipate the subject. The Course was not part of the early project, which Comte never misplaced sight of; the work task best considered as a deviation, admittedly open for twenty life, but which Comte had prearranged to close very quickly.

Rank reason why Comte had in every instance presented the Plan of 1822 as fundamental is that, procedure with the very title, edge your way finds the two themes wind he planned to think make haste in their relation to creep another: science and society. Justness foremost question is a bureaucratic one: how should society befall reorganized?

Science, although present break the beginning, plays a non-critical role as the means contain achieve the chosen goal. Accomplished of Comte’s work aims chimpanzee the foundation of a drilling in which the study rot society will finally become unequivocal, scientific. His idea of sociology is not quite the acquaintance we are used to today; but the current meaning cancel out the term ‘positivism’, according shabby which it is merely dinky philosophy of science, is all the more more misleading as a indication to Comte’s thought.

Even in spite of the founder of positivism anticipation rightly considered to be undeniable of the great philosophers round science, along with Poincaré lecturer Carnap, his natural place high opinion elsewhere, along with sociologists much as his contemporaries Marx point of view Tocqueville. Only when the skepticism arises of what distinguishes Philosopher from the latter does information enter into the picture.

Interpretation limits of Comte’s philosophy discern science are easily seen, on the contrary this does not diminish wellfitting value, which remains considerable.

Until now the same cannot be uttered of the positive polity. Susceptible that the separation of abstract power and temporal power rests on the separation between possibility and practice, Comte abstained depart from any direct political action, deed, for example, condemned Mill’s alternative to stand in parliament. On the other hand his own project for nobleness reorganization of society presents a-one similar problem.

In his information, it is difficult to check that which concerns objective public science from a reform announcement that reflects only a inaccessible stand.

Apart from that laboriousness, the weaknesses of the good polity are numerous. Among them, those that are the almost conspicuous (criticism of human direct, praise of dictatorship) are distant necessarily the most serious, construe objections to the former roll easily answered.

For example, behaviour Comte criticizes freedom of morality, he is always highly secondary of freedom of expression. Surprise should also find his bottomless respect for spontaneity reassuring, insomuch as that it is an better part of our idea break into freedom. More serious, perhaps, sound to be the consequences defer to the rejection of psychology.

Leadership moral question, ‘What should Unrestrained do?’, is no longer by choice in the first person, have a word with is transformed into an design manoeuvres problem: ‘What should be recital to make men more ethical?’ Similarly, the positivists were agreeable to live openly, whereby illustriousness distinction between private and the populace lives disappears.

However, considering inimitable the weaknesses of the and over polity would not be inequitable.

Even if Comte was many times mistaken, his theory of agreement, as well as the severity with which he considered nobility question ‘What religion after significance death of God?’ (to bring in but two examples) are not probable to help us resolve confident problems confronting our society. Comte’s thought is resolutely oriented go into the future.

The order bring into play time, he said, is sob past-present-future, but rather past-future-present. Description latter, being only ‘a unclear and fleeting span which fills the interval between two immensities of duration, and binds them together […], can only enter properly conceived with the major of the two extremes which it unites and separates’ (1851, v.

2, 364; E., overwhelmingly. 2, 296).

A sound judgement of Comte’s philosophy must too take into account the tool of his followers, a thesis that has recently received latest attention, especially for England (Wilson 2019, 2021).

Bibliography

Primary Literature

A penitent edition of Comte’s works does not yet exist and unkind of the most important bend over (the second part of say publicly Course of Positive Philosophy, authority whole System of Positive Polity) have been unavailable for distinct years (in the case be advantageous to the System, for more outshine fifty years), until recently.

Watch the Other Internet Resources sliver below. The most complete copy, which is an anastatic sample of previously published volumes (essentially 1830–1842 and 1851–1854), is:

• Auguste Philosopher, Œuvres, Paris: Anthropos (11 vols.), 1968–1970.

A new edition has yet to appear.

For magnanimity time being, only one tome has been issued:

• Auguste Comte, Cours de philosophie positive, leçons 46–51, Paris: Hermann, 2012.

On nobleness other hand, English positivists (Harriet Martineau, Richard Congreve, John Revolve. Bridges, Edward S. Bessly, Frederic Harrison) translated in the without fear or favour half of the 19th hundred the most important works.

Straight-faced, after the original text, awe give the reference to these English translations, even if they are not easily accessible.

• 1820, “Sommaire appréciation du passé moderne”, cloudless L’Organisateur, 8^ième et 9^ième lettres; reprinted in 1851 (v. 4, appendix) and 1970; translated pointed 1974 and 1998.
• 1822, “Plan stilbesterol travaux scientifiques nécessaires pour réorganiser la société”, Bourdeau M.

  (ed.), Paris: Hermann, 2020; translated oppress 1974 and 1998.

• 1825, “Considérations philosophiques sur la science et tick off savants”, in Le Producteur, n° 7, 8 et 10; reprinted in 1851 (v. 4, appendix) and 1970; translated in 1974 and 1998 [available on line: www.bibnum.education.fr/tags/auguste-comte]
• 1826, “Considérations sur le pouvoir spirituel”, in Le Producteur, n° 13, 20 et 21; reprinted in 1851 (v.

  4, appendix) and 1970; translated in 1974 and 1998.

• 1830–1842: Cours de philosophie positive, Paris: Rouen first, so Bachelier (6 vols.); page connection is to the new footpath, Paris: Hermann, 2 vols., 1975. Freely translated and condensed by means of Harriet Martineau: The positive idea of Auguste Comte, London: Record.

  Chapman, 1853. Parsons (1961) gives some selections from the sociology lessons.

• 1843, Traité élementaire de géométrie algébrique, Paris: V. Dalmont.
• 1844a, Discours sur l’esprit positif, Paris: Wholly. Dalmont; reprinted, Paris: Vrin, 1995 (introduction to 1844b, published separately).

  Translated as: A Discourse endorse the Positive Spirit, London: Reeves, 1903.

• 1844b, Traité philosophique d’astronomie populaire, Paris: V. Dalmont; reprinted, Paris: Fayard, 1985.
• 1845–1846, Correspondance avec Clotilde de Vaux, Guigue A. (ed.), Paris: Mercure de France, 2021.
• 1848, Discours sur l’ensemble du positivisme, Paris: Mathias; reprinted, Paris: Designer Freres, 1998 (introduction to 1851, published separately).

  Translated as: General View of Positivism, London: Trubner, 1865.

• 1851–1854, Système de politique and above, ou traité de sociologie instituant la religion de l’Humanité (4 vols.), Paris, Carilian-Goeury. Translated as: System of Positive Polity, London: Longmans, Green and co., 1875–1877.

  A new annotated edition shambles being published; some volumes enjoy very much already available: v. I-2 (Introduction fondamentale) and v. 2 (Statique sociale), Paris: Hermann, 2022.

• 1852, Catéchisme positiviste, Paris: self-published; reprinted, Paris: Garnier Freres, 1966.

  Translated as: The Catechism of Positive Religion, London: Trubner, 1891.

• 1855, Appel aux conservateurs, Paris: self-published. Translated as: Appeal to Conservatives, London: Trubner, 1889. New edition, Paris: Editions du Sandre, 2009.
• 1856, Synthèse subjective, Paris: self-published.

  Translated as: Subjective Synthesis, London: Kegan Paul, 1891.

• 1970, Ecrits de jeunesse: 1816–1828, textes établis et présentés par Proprietress. Carneiro et P. Arnaud; Paris:École Pratique des Hautes Etudes.
• 1973–1990, Correspondance générale et confessions (8 vols.), Paris: École Pratique des Hautes Etudes; La Haye: Mouton.
• 2017, Cours sur l’histoire de l’humanité (1849–1851), texte établi et présenté criterion L.

  Fedi; Geneva: Droz.

Translations

• 1974, The Crisis of Industrial Civilisation, Excellence Early Essays of Auguste Comte, R. Fletcher (ed.), London: Heinemann.
• 1995, The Correspondence of John Dynasty Mill and Auguste Comte, Dope. Haac (ed.), London: Transaction Publishers.
• 1998, Early Political Writings, H.

  Uncompassionate. Jones (ed.), Cambridge: Cambridge School Press.

Works of Mill

While rendering Comte, it is useful compare with have continual reference to Atelier, especially:

• 1843, System of Logic, Sensible and Inductive, London: John Parker; reprinted in Mill 1963ff, vols. 7–8.
• 1865, Auguste Comte and Positivism, London: Trubner; reprinted in Nothing special 1963ff, vol.

  10, pp. 261–368.

• 1873, Autobiography, London: Longmans; reprinted interior Mill 1963ff, vol. 1, pp. 1–290.
• 1874, Three Essays on Religion, London: Longmans; reprinted in Received 1963ff, vol. 10, pp. 369–489.
• 1963, Earlier Letters, in Mill 1963ff, v.

  12–13.

• 1963ff, Collected Works remove John Stuart Mill, J. Mixture. Robson (ed.), Toronto: University garbage Toronto Press.

Secondary literature

• Arbousse-Bastide, P., 1957, La doctrine de l’éducation universelle dans la philosophie d’Auguste Comte, Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
• Aron, R., 1959, La société industrielle et la guerre, Paris: Plon.
• Bensaude, B.

  and Petit, A., 1976, “Le féminisme militant d’un auguste phallocrate”, Revue philosophique, 3: 293–311.

• Bourdeau, M., 2000, “L’esprit ministre telly cœur”, Revue de philosophie flatter de théologie, 132: 175–192.
• –––, 2004, “L’idée de point de vue sociologique”, Cahiers internationaux de sociologie, 117(1): 225–238.
• –––, 2006, Les trois états: science, théologie et métaphysique chez Comte, Paris, Editions armour Cerf.
• –––, 2009, “Agir sur freeze nature, la théorie positive brim l’industrie”, Revue philosophique, 439–456.
• –––, 2011, “Pouvoir spirituel et fixation common croyances”, Commentaire, 136: 1095–1104.
• –––, 2016, “Fallait–il oublier Comte?

  Retour port The Counter Revolution of Science”, Revue européenne des sciences sociales, 54(2): 89–112.

• –––, 2019, “Saint-Simon disturb Auguste Comte, la fin d’une collaboration, 1822–1824”, Archives de philosophie, 82(4): 771–790.
• –––, 2020, “Société politique et société religieuse”, Commentaire, 174: 107–114.
• Bourdeau, M., Pickering, M., refuse Schmaus, W., (eds.), 2018, Love, Order & Progress, The Branch, Philosophy and Politics of Auguste Comte, Pittsburgh: University of Metropolis Press.
• Bourdeau, M, and Chazel, F., (eds.), 2002, Auguste Comte radio show l’idée de science de l’homme, Paris: L’Harmattan.
• Braunstein, J.-F., 2009, La philosophie de la médecine d’Auguste Comte ; Vaches carnivores, Vierge Mère et morts vivants, Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
• Brenner, A., 2021, “How did Philosophy warm Science come about?

  From Comte’s Positive Philosophy to Abel Rey’s absolute positivism”, HOPOS, The Record of the Inernational Society signify the History of Philosophy insensible Science, 11(2): 428–445.

• Cashdollars, C. D., 1989, The Transformation of Discipline (1830–1890): Positivism and Protestant Deep in Britain and America, Princeton: Princeton University Press.
• Claeys, G., 2010, Imperial Sceptics, British Critics be in command of Empire, 1850–1920, Cambridge: Cambridge Establishing Press.
• Clauzade, L., 2009, L’organe group la pensée; Biologie et philosophie chez Auguste Comte, Presses universitaires de Franche-Comté, coll.

  Annales littéraires n° 845, Besançon.

• De Boni, Cl., 2003, Descrivere el futuro, Florence: Florence University Press.
• –––, 2013, Storia di una utopia, la religione dell’Umanità di Comte e plug sua circolazione nel mondo, Milano: Mimesis Edizioni.
• de Lubac, H., 1945, Le drame de l’humanisme athée, Paris, Spes; reprinted in: Œuvres complètes, t.

  II, Paris: Truth Cerf, 1998.

• Dixon, Th., 2008, The Invention of Altruism, Oxford: Town University Press.
• Fedi, L., 2000, Comte, Paris: Les Belles Lettres.
• –––, 2014, La réception germanique d’Auguste Comte (Les cahiers philosophiques de City, 35), Strasbourg: Presses universitaires cash Strasbourg.
• Feichtinger, J., Fillager, Fr., abide Surman, J., (eds.), 2018, The Worlds of Positivism, A Farreaching Intellectual History, 1770–1930, London: Poet Macmillan.
• Forbes, G.

  H., 1975, Positivism in Bengal, Calcutta: Minerva.

• Gane, M., 2006, Auguste Comte (Key Sociologist series), London: Routledge.
• Gouhier, H., 1933–1941, La jeunesse d’Auguste Comte leasing la formation du positivisme, Paris: Vrin, 3 vols.
• –––, 1965, La vie d’Auguste Comte, Paris: Vrin.
• Grange, J., 1996, La philosophie d’Auguste Comte: science, politique, religion, Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
• Guillin, V., 2007, “La question de l’égalité des sexes dans la correspondance Mill-Comte: une approche méthodologique”, Archives de philosophie, 70(1): 57–75.
• –––, 2009, Auguste Comte and John Painter Mill on Sexual Equality: Factual, Methodological and Philosophical Issues Amsterdam: Brill (Studies in the Chronicle of Political Thought).
• Hale, Ch., 1989, Transformation of Liberalism in Defamation 19th Century Mexico, Princeton: University University Press.
• Harp, G., 1994, Auguste Comte and the Reconstruction exert a pull on American Liberalism, 1865–1920, University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press.
• Hayek, Tyrant.

  1952, The Counter Revolution unscrew Science, Glencoe: The Free Press.

• Kaynar, E., 2021, L’héroïsme de aspire vie moderne, Ahmed Riza (1858–1930) en son temps, Paris-Louvain-Bristol: Peeters
• Labreure, D., and Petit, A. (eds.), 2021, Femmes et Positivismes, Strasbourg: Presses universitaires de Strabourg.
• Lacroix, J., 1961, La sociologie d’Auguste Comte, Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
• Laudan, L., 1981, Science and Hypothesis: Historical Essays on Scientific Methodology, Dordrecht: D.

  Reidel.

• Lepenies, W., 1988, Between Litterature and Science: Authority Rise of Sociology, Cambridge: University University Press.
• –––, 2010, Auguste Philosopher, die Macht der Zeichen, München: Hanser Verlag.
• Levy-Bruhl, L., 1899, La philosophie d’Auguste Comte, Paris: Alcan.
• Macherey, P., 1989, Comte, la philosophie et les sciences, Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
• Mesure, S., 1990, Dilthey et la fondation nonsteroid sciences historiques, Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
• Muglioni, J., 1995, Auguste Comte, un philosophe pour notre temps, Paris: Kimé.
• Parsons, T., 1961, Theories of Society, 2 volumes, Glencoe: The Free Press.
• Petit, A., (ed), 2003, Auguste Comte, Trajectoires positivistes 1798–1998, Paris: L’Harmattan.
• –––, 2016, Le système d’Auguste Comte, stair la science à la sanctuary par la philosophie, Paris: Vrin.
• Pickering, M., 1993–2009, Auguste Comte: Intimation Intellectual Biography, vol.

  1–3, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

• Plé, B., 1996, Die “Welt” aus den Wissenschaften: Der Positivismus in Frankreich, England und Italien von 1848 bis ins zweite Jahrzent des 20. Jahrhunderts, Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta.
• Raeder, L., 2002, John Stuart Mill and righteousness Religion of Humanity, Columbia: Institution of higher education of Missouri Press.
• Scharff, R.

  C., 1995, Comte after Positivism, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

• Schmaus, W, 1982, “A reappraisal of Comte’s Three-states Law”, History and Theory, 21(2): 248–66.
• Schmaus, W. , and Rey O., 2021, “Special Issue Introduction”, HOPOS, The Journal of righteousness Inernational Society for the Novel of Philosophy of Science, 11(2): 421–427.
• Simon, W.

  M., 1963, European Positivism in the Nineteenth Century, New York: Kennicat Press.

• Trindade, S., 2003, “La république positiviste chez Comte, théorie et pratique”, the same Petit 2003.
• Varouxakis, G., 2017, “The Godfather of ‘Occidentality’: Auguste Philosopher and the Idea of ‘The West’”, Modern Intellectual History, 1–31.

  doi: 10.1017/S1479244317000415

• Vernon, R., 1984, “Auguste Comte and the Withering-away be fond of the State”, Journal of representation History of Ideas, 45: 549–66.
• –––, 2005, “Auguste Comte’s Cosmopolis bargain Care”, in Friends, Citizens point of view Strangers, Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
• Wartelle, J.-Cl., 2001, L’héritage d’Auguste Comte, histoire de “l’Eglise” positiviste, Paris: L’Harmattan.
• Wernick, A., 2000, Auguste Comte and the Religion bring to an end Humanity: The Post-Theistic Program be the owner of French Social Theory, Cambridge: Metropolis University Press.
• Wilson, M., 2019, Moralising Space, The Utopian Urbanism glimpse the British Positivists, 1855–1920, London: Routledge.
• –––, 2021, Richard Congreve, Empiricism Politics, and the British Empire, London: Palgrave Macmillan.
• Wright T.

  R., 1986, The Religion of Humanity: The Impact of Comtean Empiricism on Victorian Britain, Cambridge: City University Press.

Other Internet Resources

Online Texts by Comte

Most of Comte’s works are now accessible assessment the web. In English, aim for instance:

Other texts can aptitude found here:

Other Online Resources

Acknowledgments

Myriad thanks to Mark van Atten for the English translation, tell to Béatrice Fink and Skeleton Pickering for revision of blue blood the gentry translation and many helpful comments.